Imam Khomeini's Stance Regarding the People

 Many political thinkers and analysts of contemporary movement and revolutions in the world are in agreement about the three bases or axis that are the symbols of victory and perpetuation of revolutions, namely people, leadership and ideology. There is a certain link and relationship between these bases. Although at the interior of each two together insides an inherent unity, that is there must be a strong impenetrable bond between the people and the leadership and an indisputable unity between the people and the ideology of a revolution or a movement, but if the smallest disharmony appeals on the link between the ideology of a movement, leadership and the people, this tiny branch could one day turn to a deep fissure which could easily bring about defeat and digression

In studying and analyzing revolutions and liberation movements from the point of view of these bases, it becomes evident that as long as a strong internal tie exists between them, the resulting revolution will be insured.

The Islamic revolution of Iran is considered from certain points of view an exception in recent centuries, as even with the appearance of thousands of articles, analysis, interpretations and books, it is still unrecognized. Of course, the more profound and richer the ideological backing of the people and leadership, the more guaranteed would be the perpetuation and life of a revolution.

It must be said that the most evident principle behind the defeat of revolutions and movements is the disparity in behavior and class between the leadership and the people. Imam Khomeini(RA), quite different from other world leaders, carried this momentous and holy responsibility on his shoulders as a Godly duty and not because of thirst for power or frenzy to rule; concepts which have lead the leaders of many countries to defeat .He never had any grievances against the people. The fact that he was called a prophet-like leader has to be pondered upon. His way of life, disposition, temper, habits, behavior and the relationship with the people, whether during the years in exile or the days of the spring of revolution or the victory thereafter, remained constant and without changes. The same ardent mystic, revolutionary theologian, old but with a young demanding mind and an unbending ageless faith, he remained like a shield in front of calamities and difficulties, only natural to the count of a revolution. He never had any open complaints of the people, he believed in them and their prosperous souls wholeheartedly, in short, he loved them dearly.

Imam (RA) in the heart of the people

The Imam, unlike other religious scholars had spent a lesser time amidst his people. He at least exiled for fifteen years beyond the frontier and far from his people.

Political analysts and sociologist have not been able to discover the mystery of this internal and spiritual bond between the Imam and the people. During the revolution, he not only never distanced himself from the people, but also never even hesitated to point out and guide whenever he felt that the whirlpool of life might place a distance between the authorities and the people.

Respect and courtesy for the people

Imam's relationship with people was neither political nor a transient one. He valued people with profound belief. His interaction with people was monotheistic and God-fearing, but at the same time believed in promotion and elevation of people's beliefs, though respecting public opinion. In which history of a revolution have you read that the leader of a revolution constantly point out to the authorities the question of respect and courtesy to the people and believe in the people to a degree of placing all the executive and governmental dignitaries on one side and the people on the other, not as an opposition, but as a balance and complement of each other. He had frequently emphasized that this balance is indispensable and necessary wider any circumstances and without the backing of the people nothing can be dote. The same way that for any appointment the first say is given to the people so is for any dismissal. Pay attention to this saying of Imam: "When people don't want a public servant, he has to step down." In another time he has said: "Anyway, we have to go after the concept of keeping the people, for as it is said, without the backing of the people, nothing can be done."

Sincere and honest encounter

Another point is the respect and courtesy for the people that is evident in Imam's words and speeches, a respect that when we consider his dignity and position and ponder upon his words, we learn that there is an enormous distance between the Imam and those who are wrapped in the material world and though weak, carry the air of pride and self-conceit. He told people: "It is better to call me your servant than your leader." Imam believed that serving the people was his religious duty and asked everyone within their means to serve these good people.

In harmony with God's Will

The basic principle in satisfying the people, from Imam's point of view, is contrary to some incorrect interpretations, the satisfaction of the poor or heroic people. Imam as a religious mystic delivered from many self -serving commitments and material desires and as an antic believed that God's blessing lay in the satisfaction of his creatures. And in a statement indicates two precise points. The first being that it is necessary to satisfy the people as the Prophet (S) himself gave it much importance, and the second that if you don't have the people; if you don't have a close and strong relationship with the people, you can not direct them to God. He also stressed this fact to the authorities that they should learn from the Prophet (S) as a real and clear example.

On the importance of satisfying the people, he says: "To satisfy people is of prime importance. The holy Prophet was after attracting people's attention, lead them to God, and the authorities should follow suit.

"You have to do something to attract people's affections as God's satisfaction lies in there."

Nothing can be accomplished without the people

About people's role, Imam has said: “All revolutions in the world are dependent on one of the superpowers but our revolution is dependent only on the people.”

"If a population or a nation wants to be successful, besides working for God without any expectations, must also be with the people. Without them nothing can be done and success will not be accomplished."

Always remember that we are servants of God that the people have brought us to this level and so we must serve them"

Showing appreciation and gratitude for the sacrifices and inconveniences of the people, especially for being always present, has always occupied Imam's attention.

"Accept people and go among them, do not separate yourself from them. Previously, they didn't accept the people and were separated from them"

"Victory was won for you and me by these people. They are our benefactors and we have to feel this meaning in our hearts that we have to treat them in such a way as to earn God's blessing."

"We have to make an effort to be kind to the people."

"People have paid their dues to the Islamic Republic and until now have done their duties. We are the problem, we are answerable to them."

Belief in the people's point of view

Although the Imam believed more than anyone else did in the religions and political awareness of the people, he also believed their guidance to be always necessary.

"The difference between an Islamic and an unislamic revolution is that when a revolution becomes Islamic, the masses of the people go along with it and whenever people go along with something, it goes faster with little corruption."

Understanding people's mentality

Imam's psychological understanding of the mentality of the people is surprisingly astonishing. Because the Imam, as the leader of the people was with them and ever since his youth had spend his life with them, he was totally aware of the fervor and enthusiasm of the people and their sincere devotion to Islam and guardianship and cognizant of their presence aid outcry in all the political and religious occasions, main has repeatedly since his youth taught the facts of Islam to these people from the high altar of knowledge. Imam, more conscious then any psychologist or sociologist understood the intricacies of the people's mentality. He knew that every movement contrary to these people's sacred beliefs and doctrines would bring about hatred and repulsion in the people. He knew that great-learned men all through history have done wonders with these people. The people have directed all the opposing movements in different decades in this county. The inauspicious of the imperialists for separating politics from religion and the clergy from the people and many other such examples, have been neutralized by the sacred belief of the people in religion and Islam and their willingness to sacrifice for the values and goals of Islam.

Look at the examples of Imam's guidance to see how he emphasizes the consideration for the people and reminds us of their rights: 'The thing that caused the dissatisfaction of the people was performed, like discarding the veil. You don't know how disastrous such an act was for the people."

The power of the people for construction

"We have to strengthen the people; those people who with the power of faith and courageous spirit, men and women, poured into the streets and changed the foundations. They are capable of constructing the country."

"The day that you feel you want to force the people, you should know that you are becoming dictators and it has become evident that the people are turning away from you"

"The hearts of all the people became aware and as such, they naturally want the good. With the temperament of wanting the good when seen and your guidance, they will naturally discard evil and turn to good."

Freedom is the right of the people

"It is the people who say the truth and demand their right Freedom is the right of the people and the independence of a country is the right of the people of that country, who demand that independence."

"In the Islamic Iran, the people are the ultimate decision-makers on all problems."

"Our policy has always been based on the preservation of freedom, independence and the preservation of the people's interests and I shall never sacrifice this criterion for anything."

"Not bargaining over the true Islamic demands has always been the people's long desired goal."

Government of the people and for people

Imam with a simple but profound and masterful language has expressed the way of people's participation and the duties of the government towards the people: "An Islamic government is a government of justice depending on the people and for the people, not people for the government An Islamic government is subservient to the people and should serve them."

As in an Islamic order difference and division between classes such as between the rich and the poor does not have any meaning and is contrary to the total spirit and philosophy of creating an Islamic government. He emphasized that the authorities should sit with people and mingles with them in order to alleviate the fear that existed between them in the past, and God forbid, they would not fall prey to positions and ambitions and believe them to be their rightful inheritance. On the behavior patterns of the generals and statesmen, from the highest to the lowest he has the following to say.

"This is what we want that whoever is at the top should be the friend of the people, should not be pompous, should sit with them and talk to them so they can ask him about their needs, should give them his time. He who is the head of the army or the police, he too should mingle with people. Neither he should fear the people nor should the people fear him. This has to be the order for all the governments and nations."

Mulla Sadra’s Works

Mulla Sadra was a prolific writer. He did not write at all during his time of seclusion and asceticism and, after that, he was continually involved in teaching and training the students of philosophy who attended his classes from all over Iran; however, at all times, when traveling or at home, he seized all possible chances to write books and long or short treatises in philosophy. As a result, he created a varied, useful, and inferential philosophical collection of writings in different forms following different purposes.

Some of his books are textbooks and quite useful for gaining a preliminary or complementary acquaintance with philosophy and gnosis on the basis of his specific school of thought, Transcendent Philosophy. Some of his other books are on the explanation and demonstration of his own theories, and some others can be considered as being on human ethics and manners.

He has devoted an important part of his works to the interpretation of the Qu’ran, and although death did not allow him to provide a philosophical and gnostic commentary on the whole Qu’ran, what he wrote in this regard enjoys certain features which have made them unique among similar interpretations.

Mulla Sadra, who was aMuhaddith (an expert inhadith and traditions quoted from the Prophet (p.b.u.h) and his descendants), has an important work onhadith. This is a commentary on a famous book of hadiths, calledal-Kafi, written by Kulayni Razi. Mulla Sadra has commented on its chapter of ‘Usul’; however, perhaps due to his decease, it has remained incomplete. He also has two books in logic, calledTanquih al-Mantiq andRisalah fil Tasawwur wa Tasdiq.

His well-known books which have been published so far include the following:

1. al-Hikmat al-muta’aliyah fi’l-asfar al-arba’ah

The discussions in this book start with the issues of being and quiddity and continue with the issues of motion, time, perception, substance, and accident. A part of this book is devoted to proving the existence of God and his attributes, and, eventually, it comes to an end with a discussion of man’s soul and the subjects of death and resurrection. The novelty which he has exclusively employed in writing this interesting and important book is classifying the themes of the book in the mould of 4 stages of gnostics’ spiritual and mystic journeys, with each stage considered as one journey. Therefore, as a gnostic’s journey in the first stage is from his self and people towards God; in the second and third stages from God to God (from His Essence to His Attributes and Acts); and in the fourth stage from God to people; this book begins with existents and continues with the Hereafter, God, and the mustered people. The original book is in 4 big-sized volumes which have been published in nine small-sized volumes several times. [1]

This book is, in fact, a philosophical encyclopedia and a collection of important issues discussed in Islamic philosophy, enriched by the ideas of preceding philosophers, from Pythagoras to those living at the same time with Mulla Sadra, and containing the related responses on the basis of new and strong arguments. All these features have made it the book of choice for teaching at higher levels of philosophical education in scientific and religious centers.

The composition of this book gradually started from about 1015 A.H (1605 A.D), and its completion took almost 25 years, till some years after 1040 A.H (1630 A.D).

2. al-Tafsir (A commentary upon the Qur’an)

During his life, Mulla Sadra, at some times and in certain occasions, interpreted one of the chapters (Surahs) of the Qur’an. In the last decade of his life, he started his work from the beginning of this Holy Book in order to compile all his interpretations into a complete work, but death did not allow him to accomplish this task to the end. The names of the chapters he interpreted in an approximate chronological order is as follows: 1. chapter 57:al-Hadid, 2. commentary onAyat al-Kursi (chapter 2:al-Baqarah), 3. chapter 32:Sajda, 4. chapter 99:al-Zilzal, 5. versesal-Nur,al-Yasin, al-Tariq, 6. chapter 87:al-A’la, 7. chapter 56:al-waqui’ah, 8. chapter 1:al-Fatiha, 9. chapter 62:al-Jumu’ah, and 10. chapter 2:al-Baqarah.

In the bibliography of Mulla Sadra’s book, each of the above has appeared as an independent work, but we have cited them here all under the single title ofCommentary upon the Qur’an. He has also two other books on the Qur’an, calledMafatih al-qayb andAsrar al-ayat, which are considered as introductions to the interpretation of the Qur’an, and represent the philosophy behind this task.

3. Sharh al-hidayah

This work is a commentary on a book calledHidayah which has been written on the basis of Peripatetic philosophy, and was previously used for giving a preliminary familiarity with philosophy to students. However, it is rarely used today.

4. al-Mabda’ wa’l-ma’ad

Also calledal-Hikmat al-muta’aliyyah, this book can be considered a summary of the second half ofAsfar. It has been written away from all discussions that Mulla Sadra views as being useless and unnecessary. He called this book the Beginning and the End due to the fact that he believed it in heart that philosophy means the knowledge of the Origin and the Return. This book is mainly on issues related to theology and eschatology, and is considered one of Mulla Sadra’s important books.

5. al-Mazahir

This book is similar toal-Mabda’ wa’l-ma’ad, but is shorter than that. It is, in fact, a handbook for familiarizing readers with Mulla Sadra’s philosophy.

6. Huduth al-‘alam

The issue of the origination of the world is a complicated and disputable problem for many philosophers. In this book, in addition to quoting the theories of philosophers before and after Socrates, and those of some Muslim philosophers, Mulla Sadra has proved his solid theory through the theory of the trans-substantial motion.

7. Iksir al-‘arifin

As the name suggests, this is a gnostic and educative book.

8. al-Hashr

The central theme of this book is the quality of existents’ resurrection in the Hereafter. Here, Mulla Sadra has expressed the theory of the resurrection of animals and objects in the Hereafter.

9. al-Masha’ir

This is a short but profound and rich book on existence and its related subjects. Professor Henry Corbin has translated it into French and written an introduction to it. This book has recently been translated into English, too.

10. al-waridat al-qalbiyyah

Mulla Sadra has presented a brief account of important philosophical problems in this book, and it seems to be an inventory of the Divine inspirations and illuminations he had received all through his life.

11. Iqad al-na’imin

This book is on theoretical and actual gnosis, and on the science of monotheism. It presents some guidelines and instructional points to wake up the sleeping.

12. al-Masa’il al-qudsiyyah

This booklet deals mainly with issues such as existence in mind and epistemology. Here, Mulla Sadra has combined epistemology and ontology with each other.

13. ‘Arshiyyah

Also calledal-Hikmat al-‘arshiyyah, this is another referential book about Mulla Sadra’s philosophy. Like in al-Mazahir, he has tried to demonstrate the Beginning and the End concisely but precisely. This book has been translated by professor James Winston Maurice into English. He has also written an informative introduction to it.

14. al-Shawadhid al-rububiyyah

This philosophical book has been mainly written in the Illuminationist style, and represents Mulla Sadra’s ideas during the early periods of his philosophical thoughts.

15. Sharh-i Shafa

Mulla Sadra has written this book as a commentary upon some of the issues discussed in the part on theology (Ilahiyyat) in Ibn-Sina’s al-Shifa.Sharh-i Shafa has also been published in the form of glosses clearly expressing Mulla Sadra’s ideas in this regard.

16. Sharh-i Hikmat al-ishraq

This work is a useful and profound commentary or collection of glosses on Suhrawardi’sHikmat al-ishraq and Qutb al-Din Shirazi’s commentary upon it.

17. Ittihad al-‘aquil wa’l-ma’qul

This is a monographic treatise on the demonstration of a complicated philosophical theory, the Union of the Intellect and the Intelligible, which no one could prove and rationalize prior to Mulla Sadra.

18. Ajwibah al-masa’il

This book consists of at least three treatises in which Mulla Sadra responds to the philosophical questions posed by his contemporary philosophers.

19. Ittisaf al-mahiyyah bi’l wujud

This treatise is a monographic treatise dealing with the problem of existence and its relation to quiddities.

20. al-Tashakhkhus

In this book, Mulla Sadra has explained the problem of individuation and clarified its relation to existence and its principiality, which is one of the most fundamental principles he has propounded.

21. Sarayan nur wujud

This treatise deals with the quality of the descent or diffusion of existence from the True Source to existents (quiddities).

22. Limmi’yya ikhtisas al-mintaqah

A treatise on logic, this work focuses on the cause of the specific form of the sphere.

23. Khalq al-a’mal

This treatise is on man’s determinism and free will.

24. al-Qada’ wa’l-qadar

This treatise is on the problem of Divine Decree and Destiny.

25. Zad al-musafir

In this book (which is probably the same asZad al-salik), Mulla Sadra has tried to demonstrate resurrection and the Hereafter following a philosophical approach.

26. al-Shawahid al-rububiyyah

This treatise is not related to Mulla Sadra’s book ofal-Shawahid al-rububiyyah. It is an inventory of his particular theories and opinions which he has been able to express in philosophical terms.

27. al-Mizaj

Mulla Sadra has written this treatise on the reality of man’s temperament and its relation to the body and soul.

28. Mutashabihat al-Qur’an

This treatise consists of Mulla Sadra’s interpretations of those Qura’nic verses which have secret and complicated meanings. It is considered as one of the chapters inMafatih al-qayb.

29. Isalat-i Ja’l-i wujud

This book is on existence and its principiality as opposed to quiddities.

30. al-Hashriyyah

A treatise on resurrection and people’s presence in the Hereafter, it deals with man’s being rewarded in paradise and punished in hell.

31. al-alfad al-mufradah

This book is used as an abridged dictionary for interpreting words in the Qur’an.

32. Radd-i shubahat-i iblis

Here, Mulla Sadra has explained Satan’s seven paradoxes and provided the related answers.

33. Si Asl

This is Mulla Sadra’s only book in Persian. Here, by resorting to the main three moral principles, he has dealt with moral and educative subjects related to scientists, and advised his contemporary philosophers.

34. Kasr al-asnam al-jahiliyyah

The title of this book means demolishing the idols of the periods of barbarism and man’s ignorance. His intention here is to condemn and disgrace impious sophists.

35. al-Tanquih

In this book, Mulla Sadra has concisely dealt with formal logic. It is a good book for instructional purposes.

36. al-Tasawwur wa’l-tasdiq

This treatise deals with issues of the philosophy of logic and inquires into concept and judgment.

37. Diwan Shi’r (Collection of Poems)

Mulla Sadra has written a number of scholarly and mystic poems in Persian which have been compiled in this book.

38. A Collection of Scientific-Literary Notes

In his youth, Mulla Sadra studied a lot of philosophical and gnostic books; moreover, due to his poetic taste, he had access to the poetry books written by different poets and was interested in them. Therefore, some short notes of his own poetry, the statements of philosophers and gnostics, and scientific issues have been left from his youth, which comprise a precious collection. It is said that this book can familiarize the readers with subtleties of Mulla Sadra’s nature.

These notes have been compiled in two different collections, and it is likely that the smaller collection was compiled on one of his journeys.

39. Letters

Except for a few letters exchanged between Mulla Sadra and his master, Mir Damad, nothing has been left from them. These letters have been presented at the beginning of the 3-volume book ofMulla Sadra’s Life, Character and School, which have been written in Persian. This book has also been translated into English.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

If we consider the above 39 books along with his 12-volume books of interpretation, which we referred to asTafasir in number 2, as well as with hisMafatih al-qayb andAsraral-ayat, we have cited more than 50 of his works (exactly 53) so far. Some other books have also been attributed to him; however, we will not refer to their names, since they have either been discussed in other more comprehensive books, or their being written by Mulla Sadra has been denied.

One of the problems which has raised a lot of arguments concerning Mulla Sadra’s books is the place and time of their composition. Most of his books have no composition date, and, in order to know about this, one must refer to certain documents and evidences. For example, the composition dates of some of his books have been implied in hisal-Mabda’ wa’l-ma’ad, al-Hashr and interpretations of some of thesurahs (chapters) of the Qur’an.

For instance,al-Mabda’ wa’l-ma’ad was written in 1019 A.H (1609 A.D),Interpretation of Ayat al-kursi in about 1023 A.H (1613 A.D);Kasr al-asnam in 1027 A.H (1617 A.D);Iksir al-‘arifin in 1031 A.H (1621 A.D); the treatise ofal-Hashr in 1032 A.H (1622 A.D); the treatise ofIttihad al-‘aqil wa’l-ma’qul in about 1037 A.H (1627 A.D); andMafatih al-qayb in 1029 A.H (1619 A.D). The dates of his other books could only be approximately reckoned.

In order to know about their place of composition, we must pay attention that Mulla Sadra moved from Qum to Shiraz in about 1040 A.H (1630 A.D), and before 1015 A.H (1605 A.D), he went to Qum and its suburbs from Shiraz or some other place. Therefore, the books which he wrote before 1040 A.H must have been written in Qum or some place in its vicinity, unless he has written some of these books and treatises on his long journeys

'Allamah Sayyed

Biography
Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i'was born in Tabriz in a family of descendants of the Holy Prophet which for fourteen generations has produced outstanding Islamic scholars. He received his earliest education in his native city, mastering the elements of Arabic and the religious sciences, and at about the age of twenty set out for the great Shi'ite University of Najaf to continue more advance studies. Most students in the madrasahs follow the branch of transmitted sciences" (al-'ulumal-naqilyah),especially the sciences dealing with the Divine Law, fiqh or jurisprudence andusul al-fiqhor the principles of jurisprudence. Allamah Tabataba'i, however, sought to master both branches of the traditional sciences; the transmitted and the intellectual he studied Divine Law and the principles of jurisprudence with two of the great masters of that day, Mirza Muhammad Husayn Na'ini and Shaykh Muhammad Husayn Isfahani. He became such a master in this domain that had he kept completely to these fields he would have become one of the foremostmujtahidsor author ties on Divine Law and would have been able to wield much political and social influence.

But such was not his destiny he was more attracted to the intellectual sciences, and he studied assiduously the whole cycle of traditional mathematics with Sayyid Abu-l-Qasim Khansari and traditional Islamic philosophy including the standard text of theShifa'of lbn Sina theAsfar of Sadr al-Din Shirazi and theTamhid al-qawa’idof Ibn Turkah with Sayyid Husayn Badkube'i, himself a student of two of the most famous masters of the school of Tehran; Sayyid Abu-l-Hasan Jilwah and Aqa 'Ali' Mudarris Zunuzi.In addition to formal learning, or what the traditional Muslin sources "acquired science"('ilm-i husuli), Allamah Tabataba’i sought after that "immediate science" (‘ilmi-I-hudari) or gnosis through which knowledge turns into vision of the supernal realities. He was fortunate in finding a great master of Islamic gnosis, Mirza Al-Qadi, who initiated him into the Divine mysteries and guided him in his journey toward spiritual perfection. Allamah Tabataba’i once told that before meeting Qadi he had studied theFusus al-hikamof Ibn 'Arabi and thought that he knew it well. When he met this master of real spiritual authority he realized that he knew nothing. He also told that when Mirza 'Ali Qadi began to teach theFususit was as if all the walls of the room were speaking of the reality of gnosis and participating in his exposition. Thanks to this master the years in Najaf became for Allamah Tabataba'i not only a period of intellectual attainment but also one of asceticism and spiritual practices, which enabled him to attain that state of spiritual realisation often referred to as becoming divorced from the darkness of material limitations(tajrid).He spent long periods in fasting and prayer and underwent a long interval during which he kept absolute silence.

Allamah Tabataba’i returned to Tabriz in A.H (solar) 1314 (AD 1934) and spent a few quiet years in that city teaching a small number of disciples, but he was as yet unknown to the religious circles of Persia at large. It was the devastating events of the Second World War and the Russian occupation of Persia that brought 'Allamah Tabataba’i fromTabriz toQum in A.H. (solar) 1324 (A.H. 1945)Qum was then, and continues to be, the centre of religious studies in Persia. In his quiet and unassuming manner Allamah Tabataba’i began to teach in this holy city, concentrating on Qur'anic commentary and traditional Islamic philosophy and theosophy, which had not been taught in Qum for many years. His magnetic personality and spiritual presence soon attracted some of the most intelligent and competent of the students to him, and gradually he made the teachings of Mulla Sadri, once again a cornerstone of the traditional curriculum.

The activities of Allamah Tabataba'i since he came toQum have also included frequent visits to Tehran. After the Second World War, when Marxism was fashionable among some of the youth in Tehran, he was the only religious scholar who took the pains to study the philosophical basis of Communism and supply a response to dialectical materialism from the traditional point of view. The fruit of this effort was one of his major works, Usul-e-falsafeh Wa rawesh-e re'alism (The Principles of Philosophy and the Method of Realism),in which he defended realism in its traditional and medieval sense against all dialectical philosophies. He also trained a number of disciples who belong to the community of Persians with a modern education.

Since his coming to Qum, Allamah Tabataba’i had been indefatigable in his efforts to convey the wisdom and intellectual message of Islam on three different levels: to a large number of traditional students in Qum, who are now scattered throughout Persia and other Shi'ite lands; to a more select group of students whom he had taught gnosis and Sufism in more intimate circles and who had usually met on Thursday evenings at his home or other private places; and also to a group of Persians with a modern education and occasionally non-Persians with whom he had met in Tehran. During the past ten or twelve years there had been regular sessions inTehran attended by a select group of Persians and in the fall season by Henry Corbin. Sessions in which the most profound and pressing spiritual an intellectual problems had been discussed.
Allamah Tabataba’ihad therefore exercised a profound influence in both the traditional and modern circles in Persia. He had tried to create a new intellectual elite among the modern educated classes who wish to be acquainted with Islamic intellectuality as well as with the modern world. Many among his traditional students who belong to the class of ulama have tried to follow his example in this important endeavor. Some of his students, such as Sayyid Jalal al-Din Ashtiyani ofMashhad University and Murtada Mutahhari ofTehran University, are themselves scholars of considerable reputation .Allamah Tabataba’i often spoke of others among his students who possessed great spiritual qualities but did not manifest themselves outwardly.

In addition to a heavy program of teaching and guidance, 'Allamah Tabataba’i had occupied himself with writing many books and articles which attest to his remarkable intellectual powers and breadth of learning within the world of the traditional Islamic sciences.
At his home inQum the venerable authority devoted nearly all of his time to his Qur'anic commentary and the direction of some of his best students. He stands as a symbol of what is most permanent in the long tradition of Islamic scholarship and science. He exemplified in his person the nobility, humility and quest after truth which have characterised the finest Muslim scholars over the ages. His knowledge and its exposition are a testimony to what real Islamic learning is how profound and how metaphysical, and how different from so many of the shallow expositions of some of the Orientalists orthe distorted caricatures of so many Muslim modernists. Of course he did not have the awareness of the modern mentality and the nature of the modern world that might be desired, but that could hardly be expected in one whose life experience has been confined to the traditional circles inPersia and Iraq.

Seyyed Hossein Nasr
Tehran
Rabi aI-awwal, 1390/Urdibihisht, .1350/May, 1911

The Works of 'Allahma Tabataba'i

1-Al-Mizan (The Balance): The Allahma's most important single work, a monumental commentary upon the Qur'an of which nineteen of the projects & twenty volumes have been completed, and fourteen volumes already printed, in the origin Arabic as was in Persian translation
2-'Usul-i-falsafah wa rawish-i-ri'alism (The Principles of Philosophy and the Method of Realism) in five volumes, with the commentary of Murtada Mutahhari, of which the first three volumes have been published twice and One volume has appeared in Arabic
3-Hashiyahi kifayah (Glosses al-kifayah). Glosses upon the new edition of the Asfar of Sadr al-Din Shirizi (Mulla Sadra) appearing under the direction of 'Allahma Tabataba'i of which seven volumes have appeared. This edition will not include the third book (or rather ''journey'." safar) on substances and accidents (al-jawahir wa'l-a-rad)
4-Mushabat ba Ustad Kurban (Dialogues with Professor Corbin) Two volumes based on conversations carried out between 'Allahma Tabataba'i and Henry Corbin of which the first volume was printed as the yearbook of Maktab-i tashayyu’, 1339 (A.H. Solar)
5-Risalah dar hukumat-i islami, (Treatise on Islamic Government) printed in both Persian and Arabic
6-Hashiyah-i kifayah (Glosses upon al-Kifayah)
7-Risalah dar quwwah wafi'C(Treatise on Potentiality and Actuality
8-Risalah dar ithbat-i dha~t (Treatise on the Proof of the Divine Essence)
9-Risalah dar gifat (Treatise on the Divine Attributes)
10-Risalah dar ata! (Treatise on the Divine Acts)
11-Risalah dar wasa'ir (Treatise on Means)
12-Risalah dar insan qabi al-duny& (Treatise on Man before the World)
13-Risalah dar insan fl~i-dunya (Treatise on Man in the World)
14-Risalafi dar insdn ba'd al-dunya (Treatise on Man after the World)
15-Risalah dar nubuwwat (Treatise on Prophecy)
16-Risalah dar walyat (Treatise on Initiation)
17-Risalah dar mushtaqqat (Treatise on Derivatives)
18-Risalah dar burhan (Treatise on Demonstration)
19-Risalah dar mughalatah (Treatise on Sophism)
20-Risalah dar tahlil (Treatise on Analysis)
21-Risalah dar tarkib (Treatise on Synthesis)
22-Risalah dar i’tibara’t (Treatise on Contingents)
23-Risalah dar nubuwwat wa manarnat (Treatise on Prophecy and Dreams)
24-Manza’mah dar rasm-i- khatt-i-nasta’li’q (Poem on the Method of Writing the Nasta’liq Style of Calligraphy)
25-Ali’ wa’l-falsafat al-ilahiya (Ali and Metaphysics)
26-Qur'an dar islam (The Qur’an in Islam), the English translation of which will form the second volume of the present series.
27-Shi’ah dar islam (Shi'ite Islam), the present book

'Allahma Tabataba'i is also the author of many articles, which have appeared during the past twenty years in such journals as Maktab-i tashayyu’; Maktab-i islam, Ma’arif-i islami, and in such collections as The Mulla Sadra Commemoration Volume (ed. by S. H. Nasr, Tehran, 1340) and Mar ja'iyat Wa rabbaniyat, Tehran, 1341.

Taken from:

http://www.ummah.net/

Also see:
http://www.geocities.com/ahlulbayt14

Khajeh Nasir Tousi

(1201 A.D.-1274 A.D)

Abu Jafar Mohammad Bin Mohammad Bin Hassan Nasir Tousi (or known as Khajeh Nasir Tousi) was born in Tous, Khorasanprovince ofIran in 1201 A.D. and died in 1274 A.D in Kazemain (in today Iraq). He learnt sciences and philosophy from Kamal-o-Din Bin Yunus and others. He was one of those who were kidnapped by Hassan Sabah's agents and sent to Alamout, Hassan's stronghold. In 1256 when Almout was conquered by the Mongols, Nasir joined Halagu's service. Halagu Khan was deeply impressed by his knowledge, including his astrological competency; appointed him as one of his ministers, and, later on, as administrator of Auqaf. He was instrumental in the establishment and progress of the observatory at Maragha. In his last year of life he went to Baghdad and died there.

Nasir was one of the greatest scientists, philosophers, mathematicians, astronomers, theologians and physicians of the time and was a prolific writer. He made significant contributions to a large number of subjects, and it is indeed difficult to present his work in a few words. He wrote one or several treatises on different sciences and subjects including those on geometry, algebra, arithmetic, trigonometry, medicine, metaphysics, logic, ethics and theology. In addition he wrote poetry in Persian.

In mathematics, his major contribution would seem to be in trigonometry, which was compiled by him as a new subject in its own right for the first time. Also he developed the subject of spherical trigonometry, including six fundamental formulas for the solution of spherical right-angled triangles.

As the chief scientist at the observatory established under his supervision at Maragha, he made significant contributions to astronomy. The observatory was equipped with the best possible instruments, including those collected by the Mongol armies fromBaghdad and other Islamic centers. The instruments included astrolabes, representations of constellations, epicycles, shapes of spheres, etc. He himself invented an instrument'turquet' that contained two planes. After the devoted work of 12 years at the observatory and with the assistance of his group, he producednew astronomical tables called 'Al-Zij-Ilkhani' dedicated to Ilkhan (Halagu Khan). Although Tousi had contemplated completing the tables in 30 years, the time required for the completion of planetary cycles, but he had to complete them in 12 years on orders from Halagu Khan. The tables were largely based on original observations, but also drew upon the then existing knowledge on the subject. The 'Zij Ilkhani' became the most popular tables among astronomers and remained so till the 15th century.Nasir pointed outseveral serious shortcomings in Ptolemy's astronomy and foreshadowed the later dissatisfaction with the system that culminated in the Copernican reforms.

Tousi pioneered spherical trigonometry which includes six fundamental formulas for the solution of spherical right-angled triangles. One of his most important mathematical contributions was the treatment of trigonometry as a new mathematical discipline. He wrote on binomial coefficients which Pascal later introduced.

In philosophy, apart from his contribution in logic and metaphysics, his work on ethics entitledAkhlaq-e Naseri (Nasirean Ethics) became the most important book on the subject, and remained popular for centuries. His bookTajrid al-Aqaid was a major work onKalam (Islamic Scholastic Philosophy) and enjoyed widespread popularity. Several commentaries were written on this book and even a number of supercommentaries on the major commentaries,Sharh Qadim and Sharh Jadid.

The list of his known treatises is exhaustive; Brockelmann lists 56 and Sarton 64. About one-fourth of these concern mathematics, another fourth astronomy, another fourth philosophy and religion, and the remainder other subjects. The books, though originally written in Arabic and Persian, were translated into Latin and other European languages in the Middle Ages and several of these have been printed.

Tousi's influence has been significant in the development of science, notably in mathematics and astronomy. His books were widely consulted for centuries and he has been held in high repute for his rich contributions.

Ghiyath al Din Jamshid Masud Kashi

Details of Jamshid Kashi's life and works are better known than many others from this period although details of his life are sketchy. One of the reasons we is that he dated many of his works with the exact date on which they were completed; another reason is that a number of letters which he wrote to his father have survived and give fascinating information.

Kashi was born in Kashan which lies in a desert at the eastern foot of theCentral Iranian Range. At the time that Kashi was growing up Timur (often known as Tamburlaine) was conquering large regions. He had proclaimed himself sovereign and restorer of the Mongol empire at Samarkand in 1370 and, in 1383, Timur began his conquests inPersia with the capture of Herat. Timur died in 1405 and his empire was divided between his two sons, one of whom was Shahrokh.

While Timur was undertaking his military campaigns, conditions were very difficult with widespread poverty. Kashi lived in poverty, like so many others at this time, and devoted himself to astronomy and mathematics while moving from town to town. Conditions improved markedly when Shahrokh took over after his father's death. He brought economic prosperity to the region and strongly supported artistic and intellectual life. With the changing atmosphere, Kashi's life also improved markedly. The first event in Kashi's life which we can date accurately is his observation of an eclipse of the moon which he made in Kashan on 2 June 1406.

It is reasonable to assume that Kashi remained in Kashan where he worked on astronomical texts. He was certainly in his home town on1 March 1407 when he completedSullam Al-sama' the text of which has survived. The full title of the work meansThe Stairway of Heaven, on Resolution of Difficulties Met by Predecessors in the Determination of Distances and Sizes (of the heavenly bodies). At this time it was necessary for scientists to obtain patronage from their kings, princes or rulers. Kashi played this card to his advantage and brought himself into favour in the new era where patronage of the arts and sciences became popular. HisCompendium of the Science of Astronomy written during 1410-11 was dedicated to one of the descendants of the ruling Timurid dynasty.

Samarkand, in Uzbekistan, is one of the oldest cities of Central Asia. The city became the capital of Timur's empire and Shahrokh made his own son, Ulugh Beg, ruler of the city. Ulugh Beg, himself a great scientist, began to build the city into a great cultural centre. It was to Ulugh Beg that Kashi dedicated his important book of astronomical tablesKhaqani Zij which was based on the tables of Nasir al-Tusi. In the introduction Kashi says that without the support of Ulugh Beg he could not have been able to complete it. In this work there are trigonometric tables giving values of the sine function to four sexagesimal digits for each degree of argument with differences to be added for each minute. There are also tables which give transformations between different coordinate systems on the celestial sphere, in particular allowing ecliptic coordinates to be transformed into equatorial coordinates. See [J. Hamadanizadeh, The trigonometric tables of Kashi in his 'Zij-i Khaqani', Historia Math. 7 (1) (1980), 38-45] for a detailed discussion of this work.

TheKhaqani Zij also contains [Biography in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (New York 1970-1990)]:... detailed tables of the longitudinal motion of the sun, the moon, and the planets. Kashi also gives the tables of the longitudinal and latitudinal parallaxes for certain geographical latitudes, tables of eclipses, and tables of the visibility of the moon.

Kashi had certainly found the right patron in Ulugh Beg since he founded a university for the study of theology and science atSamarkand in about 1420 and he sought out the best scientists to help with his project. Ulugh Beg invited Kashi to join him at this school of learning in Samarkand, as well as around sixty other scientists including Qadi Zada. There is little doubt that Kashi was the leading astronomer and mathematician at Samarkand and he was called the second Ptolemy by an historian writing later in the same century.

Letters which Kashi wrote in Persian to his father, who lived in Kashan, have survived. These were written fromSamarkand and give a wonderful description of the scientific life there. In 1424 Ulugh Beg began the construction of an observatory inSamarkand and, although the letters by Kashi are undated they were written at a time when construction of the observatory had begun. The contents of one of these letters has only recently been published, see [M. Bagheri, A newly found letter of Kashi on scientific life in Samarkand,Historia Math. 24 (3) (1997), 241-256].

In the letters Kashi praises the mathematical abilities of Ulugh Beg but of the other scientists inSamarkand, only Qadi Zada earned his respect. Ulugh Beg led scientific meetings where problems in astronomy were freely discussed. Usually these problems were too difficult for all except Kashi and Qadi Zada and on a couple of occasions only Kashi succeeded. It is clear that al-Kashi was the best scientist and closest collaborator of Ulugh Beg atSamarkand and, despite Kashi's ignorance of the correct court behaviour and lack of polished manners; he was highly respected by Ulugh Beg. After Al-Kashi's death, Ulugh Beg described him as (see for example [Biography inDictionary of Scientific Biography (New York 1970-1990)]):... a remarkable scientist, one of the most famous in the world, who had a perfect command of the science of the ancients, who contributed to its development, and who could solve the most difficult problems.

Although Kashi had done some fine work before joining Ulugh Beg atSamarkand, his best work was done while in that city. He produced his Treatise on the Circumference in July 1424, a work in which he calculated 2 p to nine sexagesimal places and translated this into sixteen decimal places. This was an achievement far beyond anything which had been obtained before, either by the ancient Greeks or by the Chinese (who achieved 6 decimal places in the 5th century). It would be almost 200 years before van Ceulen surpassed Kashi's accuracy with 20 decimal places.

Kashi's most impressive mathematical work was, however,The Key to Arithmetic which he completed on2 March 1427. The work is a major text intended to be used in teaching students in Samarkand, in particular Kashi tries to give the necessary mathematics for those studying astronomy, surveying, architecture, accounting and trading. The authors of [Biography inDictionary of Scientific Biography] describe the work as follows:-
In the richness of its contents and in the application of arithmetical and algebraic methods to the solution of various problems, including several geometric ones, and in the clarity and elegance of exposition, this voluminous textbook is one of the best in the whole of medieval literature; it attests to both the author's erudition and his pedagogical ability.

Dold-Samplonius has discussed several aspects of Kashi'sKey to Arithmetic in [Y. Dold-Samplonius, The 15th century Timurid mathematician Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid al-Kashi and his computation of the Qubba, in S S Demidov et al. (eds),Amphora : Festschrift for Hans Wussing on the occasion of his 65th birthday (Basel- Boston- Berlin, 1992), 171-181], [Y. Dold-Samplonius, Practical Arabic mathematics : measuring the muqarnas by al-Kashi,Centaurus 35 (3-4) (1992), 193-242], and [Y. Dold-Samplonius, al-Kashi's measurement of Muqarnas, in Deuxième Colloque Maghrebin sur l'Histoire des Mathématiques Arabes (Tunis, 1990), 74-84]. (See also [Y. Dold-Samplonius,Qubba for al-Kashi : a videocassette (Providence, RI, 1995)]). For example the measurement of the muqarnas refers to a type of decoration used to hide the edges and joints in buildings such as mosques and palaces. The decoration resembles a stalactite and consists of three-dimensional polygons, some with plane surfaces, and some with curved surfaces. Kashi uses calculates decimal fractions in calculating the total surface area of types of muqarnas. The qubba is the dome of a funerary monument for a famous person. Kashi finds good methods to approximate the surface area and the volume of the shell forming the dome of the qubba.

We mentioned above Kashi's use of decimal fractions and it is through his use of these that he has attained considerable fame. The generally held view that Stevin had been the first to introduce decimal fractions was shown to be false in 1948 when P Luckey (see [P. Luckey, Die Rechnenkunst bei Gamsid b. Masud al-Kasi (Wiesbaden, 1951)]) showed that in theKey to Arithmetic Kashi gives as clear a description of decimal fractions asStevin does. However, to claim that Kashi is the inventor of decimal fractions, as was done by many mathematicians following the work of Luckey, would be far from the truth since the idea had been present in the work of several mathematicians of al-Karaji's school, in particular al-Samawal.

Rashed (see [R. Rashed,The development of Arabic mathematics: between arithmetic and algebra (London, 1994)] or [R. Rashed,Entre arithmétique et algèbre: Recherches sur l'histoire des mathématiques arabes (Paris, 1984)]) puts Kashi's important contribution into perspective. He shows that the main advances brought in by al-Kashi are:-

(1)The analogy between both systems of fractions; the sexagesimal and the decimal systems.
(2)The usage of decimal fractions no longer for approaching algebraic real numbers, but for real numbers such asp.

Rashed also writes (see [R. Rashed,The development of Arabic mathematics: between arithmetic and algebra (London, 1994)] or [R. Rashed,Entre arithmétique et algèbre: Recherches sur l'histoire des mathématiques arabes (Paris, 1984)]):... Kashi can no longer be considered as the inventor of decimal fractions; it remains nonetheless, that in his exposition the mathematician, far from being a simple compiler, went one step beyondal-Samawal and represents an important dimension in the history of decimal fractions.

There are other major results in the work of Kashi which were pointed out by Luckey. He found that Kashi had an algorithm for calculating nth roots which was a special case of the methods given many centuries later by Ruffini and Horner. In later work Rashed shows (see for example [R. Rashed,The development of Arabic mathematics: between arithmetic and algebra (London, 1994)] or [R. Rashed,Entre arithmétique et algèbre: Recherches sur l'histoire des mathématiques arabes (Paris, 1984)]) that Al-Kashi was again describing methods which were present in the work of mathematicians of al-Karaji's school, in particular al-Samawal.

The last work by Kashi wasThe Treatise on the Chord and Sine which may have been unfinished at the time of his death and then completed by Qadi Zada. In this work Kashi computed sin 1 to the same accuracy as he had computed sin 1 in his earlier work. He also considered the equation associated with the problem of trisecting an angle, namely a cubic equation. He was not the first to look at approximate solutions to this equation since Biruni had worked on it earlier. However, the iterative method proposed by Kashi was [Biography inDictionary of Scientific Biography]:... one of the best achievements in medieval algebra. ... But all these discoveries of Kashi's were long unknown in Europe and were studied only in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries by ... historians of science....

Let us end with one final comment on the Kashi's work in astronomy. We mentioned earlier the astronomical tablesKhaqani Zij produced by Kashi. It is worth noting that Ulugh Beg also produced astronomical tables and sine tables, and it is almost certain that these tables were based on Kashi's tables and almost certainly produced with Kashi's help.

Article by:

جالب بود